Legal Ethical Nursing Situation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Lawful Ethical Nursing Situation - Essay Example (Scott, 2000) Practice sisters in GP bunch rehearses who frequently do the genuine ailment notice are not the ones to get the legal installment. Senior HIV/AIDS release co-organizers (attendants) and exploration medical caretakers have been utilized with an aspect of their responsibilities characterized in wording which are ordinarily part of the specialist's job. Obviously, they are paid not as much as specialists. There is commonly an absence of acknowledgment and worry for the predicaments medical caretakers are confronted with in this field. Despite the fact that the moral codes of both the clinical and nursing callings are not at chances on these issues, the real practice is. Indeed, the nursing code specifically is very best in class and clear, however the contentions and force battles which despite everything exist among medication and nursing make it hard for attendants backers of the patients-to live by the letter and soul of their code. Not exclusively does the individual medical attenda nt endure in this circumstance, however any not too bad medical caretaker is constrained into shielding the privileges of the patient contrary to the nature of the information gathered. This isn't a contention against attendants entering the field of the study of disease transmission, but instead a contention for bringing the privileges of the individual patient and the open points of the study of disease transmission and wellbeing strategy together. Medical attendants are frequently in the best situation to distinguish these issues and ought to be tuned in to. (De Selincourt, 2000) Writing Review/Case Study A young lady, Amanda, is pregnant. She goes to the antenatal center, where a birthing assistant takes her wellbeing history and runs a progression of tests, for example, blood, pee and circulatory strain. She is guided by the birthing assistant on, in addition to other things, the ramifications of human immuno-inadequacy infection (HIV) and of being tried for it. In spite of the fact that the maternity specialist has no motivation to accept that Amanda has been presented to HIV, she offers her a HIV test. Amanda decreases, as there is by all accounts no requirement for one. She is likewise mindful of the challenges in getting a home loan in the event that she has this test. The blood test taken by the birthing specialist is sent to a research center for investigation for hemoglobin content, rubella antibodies, and syphilis. Simultaneously a limited quantity of blood from this example is put in an anonymous test tube which is then sent to a focal research center to be tried for HIV. T he birthing specialist is totally unconscious this has happened so can't advise Amanda. Whenever that Amanda visits the antenatal center the other blood results are come back to her and, as they are ordinary, she proceeds with her pregnancy uneventfully. Obscure to her the mysterious blood test has been tried and seen as HIV neutralizer positive and this is recorded at the national reconnaissance place, where information on HIV and (AIDS) and different irresistible ailments are gathered. The data going with this example incorporates Amanda's age run (for example somewhere in the range of 35 and 40 years), her sex and the land beginning of the example. For this situation the disease transmission specialist won't have data about the methods by which HIV was contracted. The information will give data about the patterns of HIV among pregnant ladies who go to antenatal facilities over a five-year time frame. Amanda's pregnancy

The Dead of the Night free essay sample

The best books stand the trial of time, giving the peruser an intriguing story just as passing on significant subjects and ideas† In John Marsden’s continuation of â€Å"Tomorrow When the War Began†, set in provincial cutting edge Australia, comes his second novel of seven â€Å"The Dead of the Night†. John Marsden’s â€Å"TDOTN† has stood the trial of time, by giving the perusers an intriguing story just as passing on significant topics and thoughts. We will compose a custom paper test on The Dead of the Night or on the other hand any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The subjects and thoughts of â€Å"Death and Destruction†, â€Å"Relationships and Friendships† and â€Å"Warfare and Survival†, are utilized to pass on significant messages to the perusers, by relating back to the youngsters life, and high school crowd. Utilizing account told in first individual portrayal by young person Ellie, Marsden strengthens this by utilizing styles and strategies, for example, Humor and Juxtaposition, to pass on significant messages to the perusers and high school crowd, in this way making the novel a fascinating story, and withstand the trial of time, by passing on significant topics and thoughts. The topic of Death and Destruction is talked about in the novel â€Å"TDOTN†. The principal experience with Death and Destruction was the episode in Butter Cup Lane (Ch4). While the gathering was stowing away in Butter Cup Lane to snare a caravan of officers, a foot watch of fighters went to pee in the brambles right where Homer and Chris were covering up. Homer got a fired weapon and shot the fighter, injuring him. â€Å"Jesus help me without considering it, I purposely pulled the trigger† †pg 60 Ch4. Ellie is citing that she didn’t need to consider putting the injured trooper out of his wretchedness, since she was worried about the possibility that that she may pull out in the event that she coherently thought about this thought completely her brain. Marsden utilizes Ellie’s train of â€Å"no thought† to pass on significant messages to the perusers for the explanation that numerous adolescents likewise do likewise with their activities and don’t thoroughly consider things suitably. This is the means by which John Marsden, utilizes the subject of â€Å"Death and Destruction† to cause his novel to withstand the trial of time, by giving the peruser an intriguing story just as passing on significant topics and thoughts. The topic of â€Å"Relationships and Friendships† is additionally talked about in the novel, â€Å"TDOTN†, the underlying experience of connections and companionships was when Homer announced a gathering meeting in the principal part, to recover the gathering n track. The gathering helped the gathering meet up as one once more, after they were feeling frustrated about themselves, for deserting Kevin and Corrie. â€Å"We’ve spun our head for quite a long time. We’ve been disturbed and we’ve been terrified. It’s time for us to assume responsibility for our heads once more, to be fearless again to do the things we need to do† †pg 8-9 Ch1. This implies the gathering has been sulking around for quite a while. They have been vexed and terrified of what lies in front of them. Homer, who is by all accounts taking on a position of authority, says that it’s time for them to refocus. To discover Kevin and Corrie, and to check whether some other guerrilla bunches exists like them. Marsden passes on significant subjects and thoughts, through the topic of â€Å"Relationships and Friendships†, making it an intriguing story, since adolescents are additionally trying different things with their companions and connections as well, much the same as Ellie and Lee, and this makes teenagers question whether they’d in truth do likewise for their own companions. John Marsden utilizes the present everyday dramatizations, to give his perusers an intriguing novel, in the way that the young people manage their issues in their conditions and conditions. This represents â€Å"TDOTN† can withstand the trial of time, giving the perusers an intriguing story just as passing on significant subjects and thoughts. Marsden’s epic â€Å"TDOTN† can stand the trial of time, by furnishing the perusers with an intriguing story just as passing on significant topics and thoughts, through the subject of â€Å"Warfare and Survival†. Issues of these conditions, remember enduring the assault for Harvey’s Heroes, living in Hell and enduring all the marking and hanging out all over Wirrawee. One explicit episode which features this topic is Butter Cup Lance. The young people before they assault the caravan of officers plunk down and play their strategies and talk about what will occur and the techniques if something turns out badly. Their exchange and discourse likewise shows their dread of the war and their endurance impulses. â€Å"And assume a watch had bounced us? Assume we’d been gotten with sawn off fired weapons? We’d all be set facing a tree and shot and you’d have 5 people groups blood on your hands† †pg 92. Ellie is hollering at Homer, since he had conflicted with the gathering and what they’d settled upon and brought the fired firearms in any case, this risking their own endurance. Notwithstanding this Homer has broken their trust and put their endurance in question, this relates back to youngsters for the explanation that kinships are based on trust. This is the means by which Marsden utilizes the topic of â€Å"Warfare and Survival† to pass on significant subjects and thoughts, and give the perusers, with an intriguing story, along these lines making â€Å"TDOTN† stand the trial of time. In â€Å"TDOTN† Marsden utilizes the account structure of first individual portrayal to viably furnish the peruser with an intriguing story, just as permitting â€Å"TDOTN† to stand the trial of time. Marsden utilizes Ellie’s own words and encounters to pass on her sentiments and feelings to the perusers by utilizing the legitimate voice of a multi year old female. Ellie utilizes â€Å"I, we† and slang and informal dialects, to disclose to her story. A genuine case of this is when Ellie is bringing everything forward-thinking toward the finish of the novel on pg 270. â€Å"The just thing that I need to write to bring this state-of-the-art is about Chris. Furthermore, what I put won’t be extremely legitimate. I’m so stirred up with my emotions about everything. † The account additionally follows the structure of entwined activity, storyline and show. Ellie here and there gets off course with future undertakings and thoughts. This is the manner by which Marsden utilized first individual portrayal to furnish the perusers with an intriguing story, by utilizing the bona fide voice of a multi year old female, along these lines making the novel stand the trial of time. The strategies of Humor is practiced in the novel â€Å"TDOTN†, by breaking the strained air with clever cases, to furnish the peruser with a fascinating story, consequently making â€Å"TDOTN† stand the trial of the time. There are various models which actualize Humor in the novel. One of them being, when Major Harvey from the Harvey’s Heroes campground was presenting his second in order, â€Å"Captain Killen† (Punn) to the youngsters. â€Å"In a couple of seconds I will acquaint with you my second in order, Captain Killen† †pg 109. Marsden utilized a Punn (type of Humor) to play on the expressions of the second in orders name. Another model was the point at which the gathering strolled into Major Harvey’s tent just because, and was stunned to find how enormous and rich it was. â€Å"Major Harvey’s tent was so large by our standards† †pg 106. The young people were additionally stunned to find that Major Harvey laid down with a mosquito net. â€Å"Bit of an extravagance that; â€Å"Fact is, I’ve got rather delicate skin† †pg 106. Marsden utilizes Humor to give the perusers an intriguing story, by helping our mind-set; he utilizes Punn and Humor to ridicule Major Harvey in the manner that he is intended to be an extreme chief/warrior and this shows the direct inverse of him. It shows that Major Harvey is high support. This is the manner by which Marsden shows Humor in â€Å"TDOTN†, by furnishing the peruser with a fascinating story, subsequently withstanding the test if time. John Marsden likewise utilizes the style and strategy of Juxtaposition to furnish his perusers with an intriguing story, by contrasting Harvey’s Heroes endeavors, to the gathering of young people in the war. â€Å"Huh! Some of them are unusual! They engaged me for quite a long time the previous evening, mentioning to me what saints they are. Appear as though their greatest rush was burning down a truck that had been stalled. They’d seen the fighters leave it there and drive off in an Ute, so peril level was two on a size of nothing to a hundred† †pg 114-115. Ellie and Homer locate this entertaining in light of the fact that Harvey’s Heroes is a co-ordinated gathering of ADULTS not youngsters, and the gathering have managed substantially more harm than Harvey’s Heroes. Marsden thinks about the young people in Hell to a gathering of creatures, taking care of, gathering food, doing it intense and stowing away. â€Å"Burrows among the rocks†, â€Å"Running wild in the night†, Ellie cites that they are acting like nighttime creatures. Marsden utilizes Juxtaposition to furnish his perusers with a fascinating story, between our gathering of young people and their triumphs in the war contrasted with Harvey’s Heroes. This outlines â€Å"TDOTN† can withstand the trial of time. In end â€Å"TDOTN† can stand the trial of time by giving the peruser an intriguing story just as passing on the peruser with significant subjects and thoughts. Marsden does as such by utilizing the significant topics and thoughts of â€Å"Death and Destruction†, â€Å"Relationships and Friendships† and â€Å"Warfare and Survival†. John Marsden utilizes styles and procedures of first individual portrayal, Humor and

Leadership The 9 Biggest Mistakes a Leader Can Make

Leadership The 9 Biggest Mistakes a Leader Can Make As part of an ActionCOACH work day last month, we viewed an enlightening video  on leadership mistakes put together by Harvard Business Publishing. Nine business leaders were asked what they considered the biggest mistake a leader can make. Their answers are very revealing. The video was created in August 2010, and when I think back to the news about business and government leaders over the past seven years, I can line up those successes and failures to one or more of the insights below. I can also see where I personally am succeeding and where I can use some improvement. Most of these leadership mistakes can be classified under the category of either hubris/arrogance or lack of integrity. I have summarized them for you here (Stylistic note: I chose to use the words and phraseology of each leader rather than be completely consistent with the structure of each answer. I hope you’ll forgive me this one time!) Which of these leadership errors speaks most to you? Bill George, Harvard Business School The biggest mistake you can make as a leader is to put your own self-interest in front of the interest of the organization you run. If you’re looking out for your own money, power, fame, and glory, that’s wrong. Leaders have a deep responsibility to all constituencies they represent â€" customers, employees, shareholders, etc. â€" to carry that responsibility out. Leadership is not about your own fame and glory. It’s a responsibility. Evan Wittenburg, Head of Global Leadership Development, Google, Inc. Betraying trust. If you break that one, nothing else will matter. Ellen Langer, Professor, Harvard University Being certain. When we confuse the stability of our mindset with the stability of the underlying phenomenon, we act as if we know. When you think you know, you don’t pay any attention any longer. Uncertainty should be the rule. Exploit the power in uncertainty. Andrew Pettigrew, Professor, Said Business School, University of Oxford Not living up to their values. Leaders who espouse values but don’t deliver them are very often found out, and rapidly turned over. Gianpiero Petriglieri, Affiliate Professor of Organizational Behavior, INSEAD Don’t be so overly enamored with your own vision that you lose capacity for self-doubt. Passion and purpose (positive traits) can sometimes turn into obsession. You become vulnerable if you lose the capacity to see consequences, to look at potential downfalls, other ways things can be, or voices you might be disenfranchising. Carl Sloane, Professor Emeritus, Harvard Business School Personal arrogance/hubris. Confusing the size or success of the enterprise with the individual’s persona. That creates greater social distance and power distance, which is demotivating for most organizations and people, and which increases the chance of making big mistakes. Jonathan Doochin, Leadership Institute at Harvard College Acting too fast. Executing before thinking through the issue. In corporate America and often government, you’re often drinking through a fire hose of issues, with little time to step back, evaluate, and reenter with vision. The best thing a leader can do is take a step back with their management team, seek advice, think it through, then move back to execution. This solves issues in the short term and is also good for long-term strategy. Scott Snook, Professor, Harvard Business School As humans, we’ll accept almost any leadership style as long as it’s consistent. We will sniff out two things: 1) when it’s all about the leader. It has to be about something larger than yourself. 2) not being authentic, consistent, predictable, or in integrity. Our greatest fear is when we have to ask, “Which one (personality) is coming in today?” Like Jekyll and Hyde. As long as there’s consistency, and it’s about something greater than the leader, we’ll respect that leader. Daisy Wademan Dowling, Executive Director, Leadership Development at Morgan Stanley Not being self-reflective. Not reviewing your own behavior, how to develop yourself, and how your behavior affects other people. You must be willing to hold a mirror to yourself and look at what effect your leadership is having on others. The worst leaders bulldoze forward, make mistakes and don’t look back, not learning as they go or being self-aware about how they’re affecting the people around them. While there are many more blunders a leader can make, it seems all of them fall under one of the leadership mistakes identified above. For instance, making a company all about making money, and losing sight of the underlying values is a mistake. I believe it falls under #1, #6, and probably #9 as well. The tendency toward focusing on money over all else is a sign of getting caught up in a game that ultimately is not satisfying to win. Mistakes are bound to be made. Working too hard to please others is also a mistake; it falls under #4 and #8. If you’re not following your inner compass, you won’t be consistent or trustworthy in sticking to your own values. The potential mistakes I want to focus on are consistency and following the values I espouse. Sometimes I am afraid I am being that Jekyll Hyde personality. I write so much about leadership to remind myself how to stay in integrity with my own vision of how I want to lead. I don’t always succeed, but I always do #9 â€" self-reflection! I’d love to hear your stories of your own leadership wins and failures, or how you see the leaders around you have succeeded or made mistakes in the areas above. Please share!

Representation of Scrooge in A Christmas Carol Essay

How does Dicken’s representation of Scrooge in Ch How does Dicken’s representation of Scrooge in Ch.1 of â€Å"A Christmas Carol† contrast to the image he develops in the final chapter? â€Å"A Christmas Carol†, is a novel set in the 19th century in England. It is written in 1843 by Charles Dickens. In â€Å"A Christmas Carol†, Dickens has developed the character of Scrooge in a number of ways. At the start of the novel, Scrooge is a penny – pinching miser. I can tell this because Dickens writes: â€Å" A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous old sinner!† This shows that Scrooge is a stingy, grasping miser who, exists only for money and he holds his money very tightly and is not willing to let it go. He earned†¦show more content†¦In the final chapter of this novel, Scrooge’s character is extremely changed. This is because of the happenings in chapter 2, 3 and 4. There were 3 ghosts in Scrooge’s dream. The ghost were of the â€Å"Past, the Present and the Future† of Scrooge. The â€Å"Past† described Scrooge as a positive and active person. The â€Å"Present† described Scrooge as a miser. The â€Å"Future† described Scrooge as a forgotten being as no one cared for his grave. At the end of the novel, Dickens writes: â€Å"I am as light as a feather, I am as happy as an angel; I am as merry as a school-boy. I am as giddy as a drunken man. A merry Christmas to everybody! A happy New Year to all the world! Hallo here! Whoop! Hallo!† This quote shows that Scrooge is changing. He was relaxing himself as a child, who is easily amused. This use of similie makes him sound positive and relaxed. He was a man who was cold and humorless before and now he was a warm-hearted man. And Scrooge understands that Christmas is important. He knows that Christmas DayShow MoreRelatedA Lack of Charity Essay example1718 Words   |  7 PagesDickens’s books, Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol, the theme of lack of charity is pronounced. Throughout Oliver Twist, society turns a â€Å"cold shoulder† to those in need of help (Miller 30). The Victorian England society prohibits inhabitants of the lower social realms from moving up in society. Rarely do lower class members receive attention, and the attention they do receive is far from par (Reeves). Ebenezer Scrooge, the main character of A Christmas Carol, learns to be charitable through a lessonRead MoreEssay on Charles Dickens: A Christmas Carol1155 Words   |  5 PagesCharles Dickens: A Christmas Carol ‘A Christmas Carol’ written by Charles Dickens tells the story of a man named Ebenezer Scrooge who is taught the true meaning of Christmas and is shown the errors of his ways. ‘A Christmas Carol’ was published in 1843, this was a time of social and political unrest. Dickens motivation for writing this story was to encourage employers to treat workers well, he uses the Christmas Carol to portray this message. Charles Dickens felt stronglyRead MoreEbenezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol Essay1163 Words   |  5 PagesDickens presents the character of Ebenezer Scrooge as being central to the moral message of A Christmas Carol. In the text ‘A Christmas Carol’, the author Charles Dickens presents the character of Ebenezer Scrooge as central to the moral message in a number of different ways. To identify this, a number of different aspects within the text shall be looked at. These include the morals of the story and the affects of this. The way Ebenezer Scrooge is portrayed as well as what the characterRead MoreA Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens and the Movie Christmas Cupid569 Words   |  3 Pagesthe Christmas Spirit in A Christmas Carol and it shined through in Christmas Cupid. 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Fictional stories, although based upon make-believe tales, can often expose the truth behind an author’s personal views and ideals, as well as act as powerful tools to present social messages and warnings to readers across many generations. ‘A Christmas Carol’, written by Charles Dickens, is a novella in which social inequality is highlighted through the journey of a notoriousRead Moreignorance and want875 Words   |  3 PagesSet up against the rampant industrialization of the 18th century, Charles Dickens classic novella â€Å"A Christmas Carol† endorses the notion that all people have a responsibility to ensure the safety and welfare of every member of society. By taking his seemingly irredeemable protagonist Ebenezer Scrooge on an other worldly journey. Dickens intends to convey to the complacent classes of the age, the necessity of various traits that are essential in life, such as the responsibility for those whom areRead MoreScrooge in A Christmas C arol2375 Words   |  10 Pages In a time in which the significance of Christmas gradually started to change, Charles Dickens, in accordance with these changes, wrote a Christmas tale: A Christmas Carol. The novella was published six days in advance of the Christmas celebrations of 1843; it was sold out three days later. Although a socially engaged narrative, Dickens’ work is not occupied with trivialities such as the introduction of Christmas cards; instead A Christmas Carol focuses on the transforming beliefs and valuesRead MoreWhat Is Charles Dickens Moral Message and How Does He Communicate It to the Reader in â€Å"a Christmas Carol†?2021 Words   |  9 PagesChristmas Carol What is Charles Dickens moral message and how does he communicate it to the reader in â€Å"A Christmas Carol†? Christmas carol is a novel written by Charles Dickens (1812-1870) during the Victorian times in London. For me to explore the moral messages I feel it is important to acknowledge exactly what the message is. Charles Dickens throughout the novel communicates; Charity, goodwill, family, kindliness and humility as moral messages, however, I personally feel Charles Dickens mostRead MoreDrama And Themes Of Drama1111 Words   |  5 Pagesthe most common genre of movies (Dirks, 2015). Drama focuses on realistic characters with a realistic story line, high intensity special effects are not usually prevalent in dramas. The Help, A Christmas Carol, Mr. Mom, are the dramas chosen that I feel depict race, social class, and gender representation each at a very different level, based on the time period implied in the movie. COMMONALITIES AND CHOSEN ISSUES If I am going to see a movie based on a novel I have read, for example, The Help, IRead MoreA Christmas Carol By Charles Dickens1331 Words   |  6 PagesPeriod three Scrooge Changes In the story, A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens, Scrooge is the main character. In the beginning of the story, he is shown as an old miser counting and gripping his money in the counting house. Later on, Scrooge’s dead business partner, Marley, has visited Scrooge from the grave while being bounded in chains to warn Scrooge to change his ways or suffer the same fate. Soon, three ghosts are sent to visit Scrooge to show him scenes that would help Scrooge learn and change

Arguments Against Chinua Acebes An Image of Africa...

Kody Han Mr. Burgess AP Literature and Composition 6 March 2013 An Image of Africa: Not Racism in Conrad’s ‘Heart of Darkness’ People of dark skin have been wrongly discriminated against by racists for hundreds of years. From the first time Europeans stepped onto Africa and deemed black skin inferior till now, black people have been fighting for the right to be called equal. During the last century Africans have made great strides in fighting against racism. Many black leaders have risen up and confronted those racist against them. However, there are also times when people have gotten up in arms and have attacked others over misunderstandings. An example of this is Chinua Achebe’s essay â€Å"An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s ‘Heart of†¦show more content†¦It makes no sense for Achebe to stretch his information so far to come to this conclusion. It also makes no sense for Achebe to question Conrad’s description of the continent while Conrad has made the trip into the country. Achebe sa ys, â€Å"I will not accept just any traveler’s tales solely on the grounds that I have not made the journey myself† (7). Achebe has never been to the Congo like Conrad has, yet he has the audacity to question what Conrad witnessed there while Achebe’s father was a baby. Achebe accuses Conrad of depicting Africa incorrectly without having ever having stepped foot into the continent, which makes him even more clueless to the Africa of Conrad’s age. He declares that Conrad of making Africans seem more savage than they actually were, while unable to even imagine how they were so long ago. Achebe charges Conrad with racism and ignorance while completely dismissing his own. Although Achebe is a celebrated author, at many points during this essay his arguments are weak, even pathetic because of the irrational conclusions that he comes to. This gives a preview to the carelessness of his essay that becomes evident upon further inspection. In his essay Achebe see ms to forget to (or chooses not to) discuss many factors that go against his argument. He states that Conrad enjoys things that stay in their place. Achebe believes that

Too Big To Fail Free Essays

The idea that a business has become so large and ingrained in the economy that the government will provide assistance to prevent its failure. â€Å"Too big to fail† describes the belief that if an enormous company fails, it will have a disastrous ripple effect through shout the economy. The idea of too big to fail should never be possible. We will write a custom essay sample on Too Big To Fail or any similar topic only for you Order Now No single financial institute should have the power of bringing down our entire economy. The taxpayers should not have to be worried about whether or not their money is safe. There obviously has been a lack of leadership going wrought the economic system. If there were strong leaders put in place originally to deal with this situation, then so many things could have been prevented. A crisis that nearly destroyed our nation would have never even made it to the surface. I blame the lack of leadership for the economical scare. The worlds leaders should have been containing the problem as it started instead of allowing it to get that big and potentially blowing up. Fannies Mae and Freddie Mac could have been saved. But instead each bank was focused on their own needs which is understandable and appropriate. But since they were intertwined so heavily was no longer an option. These institutes should have kept their distance to prevent something from happening. Our economical leaders should have practiced better leadership skills and not but all our dollars in one basket. Because just like in 2008, if any piece of that basket were to break or be destroyed we all would go down. The buyout may have worked this time, but that is simple a patch on the service of our overall problem. Get some strong leaders in those seats and all these problem might just go away. How to cite Too Big To Fail, Papers Too Big to Fail Free Essays string(68) " were undertaking very risky ventures and even fraudulent activity\." Can banks become â€Å"too big to fail†, and should they be allowed to stay that way? On September 15th 2008, the investment bank Lehman Brothers filed for bankruptcy. It was, and still is, the biggest bankruptcy filing in U. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Too Big to Fail or any similar topic only for you Order Now history , with Lehman’s holding $691 billion in assets at the time. The event was the catalyst for the current financial crisis. By the end of trading that day, $700bn had been wiped off the global stock markets. The Dow Jones had plummeted 500 points, its biggest drop since the terrorist attacks of 9/11 . Despite rumours and knowledge that Lehman’s was struggling, with its share price dropping daily, the huge drop in the financial markets was due to the huge shock. No-one had been expecting this, as it was anticipated that the U. S. overnment would intervene and bail out the bank, as it had done previously for another investment bank Bear Stearns, and for the mortgage firms Freddie Mac (Federal Home Loan Mortgage Company) and Fannie Mae (Federal National Mortgage Association) earlier on in that month. Everybody had assumed that Lehman’s was simply too big to fail. The term â€Å"too big to fail† has become a phrase used to describe banks that are so interconnected, so large and so strategically important that if they were to fail the consequences could be catastrophic for the economies th ey inhabit . In November 2011, the Financial Stability Board released a list of 29 banks worldwide that it considered to be too big to fail, and gave its definition as â€Å"systematically important financial institutions are financial institutions whose distress or disorderly failure, because of their size, complexity and systemic interconnectedness, would cause significant disruption to the wider financial system and economic activity† . There is an intense debate as to whether banks should be allowed to be too big to fail or not. Those in favour consider the idea that those institutions that are too big to fail should be given special status by the governments and central banks. They also think the institutions should be the recipients of special protective policies that shield them from legislation that may harm them. On the other side, there are a lot of critics of the â€Å"too big to fail† train of thought. One of the main issues is the moral hazard problem that arises. If the banks know that the government will bail them out once they start to get into financial difficulties, then they will seek to profit from it. They will take higher and higher risks, and act more dangerously as they know they have a safety net to fall back upon. Opponents argue that if an institution is too big to fail then, instead of protective policies being gifted to it, much stricter regulations should instead be applied to prevent bankers from taking too many risks. Some go as far as to suggest that if the bank is too big to fail, then it is simply too big, and should be broken up. Proponents of this idea include Alan Greenspan, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve , and Mervyn King, the Governor of the Bank of England . Others suggest that no bank is too big to fail, and if it gets to the stage where a bailout is required then the bank should just be forced to go into liquidation. This topic is so interesting because of its massive impact upon the global economy at this current time. The sub-prime mortgage crisis, the collapse of many financial institutions and the massive levels of government bailouts have dominated the political agenda for the past four years or so, and are one of the causes of the recession we currently find ourselves in. Whilst rather outnumbered by the number of critics of too big to fail ideas, there are nevertheless a large number of people who consider that banks should be allowed to be and to become too big to fail. One area that they point to as a real asset is the sheer size of the bank itself. Being so large, they can conduct large financial operations using enormous sums of money. This allows them to provide more services, and to more people, than smaller banks. They can also lend in developing, growing countries, which often don’t have strong financial institutions of their own. Furthermore, their size and capital allows them to provide those services at cheaper rates than their smaller counterparts. The large banks can achieve much greater levels of economies of scale. Studies by Boyd and Heitz have shown that larger banks, (defined as having assets of over $50 billion), have higher scale economies than their smaller counterparts . The mean measure of scale economies in the banking industry is 1. 145, whilst the larger banks had a mean of 1. 25, implying that they were therefore 9. 2% more efficient than the rest of the industry. They hereby estimated that the larger banks’ economies of scale increased their contribution to national output by 9. 2%. These proponents argue that the social benefits derived from these economies of scale are beneficial enough to prevent the stricter reforms and changes being discussed by governments around the world from being implemented. One of the main arguments against banks becoming too big to fail is that a moral hazard problem occurs. Moral hazard is a basic economic concept, whereby one party entering a transaction will take more risky actions if they know they have insurance against the outcomes of those actions. At present, too big to fail banks have a variety of systems emplaced by the government, which protect them in the event that they run into financial difficulty. For example, in the U. S. the banks’ creditors get federal deposit insurance, which guarantees the deposits of bank creditors up to a certain amount in the event of bank failure , and this is just one of many. When the sub-prime mortgage struck in 2007 bankers and financial institution were undertaking very risky ventures and even fraudulent activity. You read "Too Big to Fail" in category "Essay examples" KPMG’s study, â€Å"Who is a Typical Fraudster? found that the most likely type of person to commit fraud was â€Å"A 36- to 45-year-old male in a senior management role in the finance unit or in a finance-related function† . One example, a loan was issued to a â€Å"sales executive† for Bay Area Sales and Marketing earning $8,700 per month for a $398k loan on a house which was worth no more tha n $277k, and the â€Å"executive† had been unemployed since 1989 and had no income. Another example was a loan application form filled in for an investor for GNG Investments in Santa Clara California turned out to be a janitor making $3,901 per month. She got a house worth at the time $600k. The lack of regulation made it very easy for financial institutions to play fast and loose with their investments and projects. Goldman Sachs, the investment bank, is currently fighting a fraud suit brought about by the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) . They are accused of creating and selling a mortgage investment that was secretly designed to fail. Lehman Brothers has been accused of accounting fraud, by removing debt off its balance sheet to make it appear less leveraged, despite a massive leverage ratio of at times up to 40:1. Ernst Young, Lehman’s auditors, have since been sued by the New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo . British banks too have been accused of misreporting. Northern Rock’s former deputy chief executive and former managing credit director were fined by the Financial Services Authority (FSA) for deliberately misreporting its mortgage arrears figures . If properly reported, the bank’s arrears figures would have reached 50%. These banks could behave in such a way because of the attitude of the U. S. overnment and other governments around the world – they knew they would receive public funding if things went badly wrong for them. Opponents of too big to fail banks are split into three main camps, those who think the banks need tighter regulation, those who believe they should be broken up, and those who think the banks should simply be allowed to fail. The most common line of thought is for tighter regulation, and it is not just politicians and other senior peop le who voice that opinion, most of the world seems to have been voicing it recently. Due to their reckless spending and playing of the markets, it is argued that the banks’ social costs far outweigh their social benefits. The fallout from the collapse of too big to fail banks is far greater than the benefit they bring from their large economies of scale. In 2009 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has estimated the total cost of the global financial crisis to be around ? 7. 1 trillion . Boyd and Heitz estimate the social cost is around 40% of 2007 real per-capita GDP, and that the costs are far larger than the benefits . Increased regulation of banks that are deemed too big to fail would prevent the reckless behaviour seen leading up to this current crisis. There are many different ways of increasing the regulation being discussed as possible options, and some are being implemented. This is despite the vast lobbying efforts levelled at Congress by the banking industry (during reform debates, banks spent an estimated $1. 4 million per day to influence Congress) . One is the required increase in the minimum level of capital that banks hold. When the crisis hit, many banks had very high leverage ratios, the average being in the high twenties, with Lehman’s hitting around 40:1 at times. In June last year, the Group of Governors and Heads of Supervision (GHOS), the oversight body for the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) introduced legislation requiring banks to have additional levels of capital from 1 – 2. 5% depending on the bank’s systematic importance . Tighter regulation on banks’ liquidity levels is another area proposed, as is more regulation on â€Å"shadow banking† activities. Shadow banking† refers to financial institutions that fall outside the definition of a bank, for example hedge funds and structure finance vehicles (SFVs). In the U. S. , the ‘Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act’ was introduced in 2010. This has created a new independent financial watchdog, (The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau); prevents future bank bailouts; eliminates loopholes that encourage risky ventures; brings in an advanced warning system for systematic risk and generally reinforces bank regulation. It is hoped throughout the U. S. hat it is legislation such as this which will prevent future crises from occurring. A key proponent of increased regulation is the Nobel Laureate Paul Krugman, who believes that the economies of scale are worth keeping, and that all that is needed is tighter regulation of both the banking system, and the â€Å"shadow banking† system . He says it is easy for people to point the finger at the size of vast banks and use a â€Å"greed culture† as blame for the crisis. He argues that it is not necessarily the size of the bank that is important; it is the interconnectedness that matters . These thoughts backed by Chen Zhou of De Nederlandsche Bank and Erasmus University Rotterdam, who used experiments to show it is the systematic importance, rather than the size of the bank which mattered . Another method proposed by opponents of too big to fail banks to deal with the problems is to deliberately break them up. This refers in particular to investment banking groups with commercial arms. In the U. S. , where there is more focus on dealing with the problem through increased regulation and legislation. In the UK, however, the argument is less settled. Whilst there are some proponents for bank separation in the U. S. , such as Alan Greenspan, quoted as saying â€Å"If they’re too big to fail, they’re too big† they are fewer than in the UK. Mervyn King is one, saying â€Å"It is not sensible to allow large banks to combine high street retail banking with risky investment banking or funding strategies, and then provide an implicit state guarantee against failure† . He wants banks broken up so that the separate parts can be much more highly capitalised. Sir John Vickers’ Independent Commission on Banking has been under pressure from politicians such as Vince Cable to conclude that the best course of action is to break up the larger banks. There are a lot of opponents to this idea, however. The main issue is where you draw the dotted line. Most banks don’t split into two convenient easy sections, it is all very intertwined and the line between investment and retail can be very blurred indeed. As Damian Reece, the Head of Business for the Telegraph says, â€Å"the boundaries between retail and investment banking are extremely blurred, if not invisible† . A possible compromise may be to make banks separate the operations internally, and then regulate them in that state. Lord Turner, the Chairman of the FSA, has recommended such a course of action in the review he carried out of the banking crisis . The review notes, â€Å"It does not therefore seem practical to work on the assumption that we can or should achieve the complete institutional separation of ‘utility banks’ from ‘investment banks’ which the advocates of that model suggest†. The last option is the most extreme one, whereby supporters propose that if a bank runs into trouble it is simply allowed to go bankrupt. Alton Drew, an independent policy analyst, is quoted as saying, â€Å"We should allow big banks to fail because ‘market stability requires it’† . However, I disagree with this idea. The collapse of Lehman Brothers is, in my opinion, a good example of the dangers of letting a bank fail. Whilst many people think that Hank Paulson, the then U. S. Treasury Secretary, deliberately let Lehman’s collapse to send a message to the banking industry, he and others involved have stated that it was just untenable to bail out Lehman Brothers. Paulson said, â€Å"I never once considered that it was appropriate to put taxpayer money on the line in resolving Lehman Brothers† and Neil Kashkari, the then Assistant Treasury Secretary justifies this: â€Å"The law requires the fed to be secured so that they’re not taking much risk. And so in the case of Bear Stearns, they lent $30bn against a pool of mortgages. In the case of Lehman Brothers, the question is what asset could they lend against† . However, many believe that Lehman’s was too big and too interconnected to let fail, and that the fallout from this has been far worse had it just been bailed out. John Thain, former CEO of Merrill Lynch said, â€Å"I believe that allowing Lehman Brothers to go bankrupt was a tremendous mistake. The amount of money it would have take, $20bn, $30bn, compared to the destruction in value that followed the Lehman bankruptcy, and the complete shutdown of the credit markets, the billions and billions and billions of losses that were experienced in the markets subsequently† . In conclusion, it is my opinion that banks can be too big to be allowed to fail, as seen in the example of Lehman Brothers. As Mervyn King said, â€Å"I don’t think any of us easily anticipated the kind of financial crisis we saw after the collapse of Lehman Brothers† and think that with hindsight, the U. S. Treasury and Federal Reserve would think a lot harder if they could go back and make that decision again. I don’t think that it is necessarily a bad thing for banks to be too big to fail. The economies of scale, and the vast wealth and expertise generated by these banks can be very beneficial to an economy. If full and proper regulations and legislation are put into place, the moral hazard that arises from the knowledge of guaranteed bail outs will cease, and so the social negativities generated will be greatly diminished. If properly policed, the too big to fail banks can be a social benefit to the world, rather than the cause of the greatest worldwide recession since the Great Depression. How to cite Too Big to Fail, Essay examples

Clockwork Orange Essay Research Paper A Clockwork free essay sample

Clockwork Orange Essay, Research Paper A Clockwork Orange is the narrative of a immature teenage bully, Alex DeLarge, who with the company of his confederates commit, repeated homicides and colzas at dark. They break into places of guiltless people and commit offenses dressed like they are participants in a circus. During one of their darks of panic, Alex is caught by the constabulary and jailed. During his prison term, there is a research undertaking being designed to discourage the criminalistic head every bit good as to do room for the captives by antipathy therapy proposed by the authorities. Alex becomes cured by the therapy and when released back into society is rejected by his household, tortured by his friends and confronted by the people who he had committed offenses against in his anterior life style. The narrative takes topographic point in Britain. In the film the jurisprudence is viewed as one that deters offense by condemning and imprisoning felons for offenses committed by presenting an option to discourage offense and jurisprudence among an single group in society. We will write a custom essay sample on Clockwork Orange Essay Research Paper A Clockwork or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In one of the get downing scenes of the film, the British constabularies are keeping a adult female surety as if they are traveling to physical assault her. This is the first show of how corruptness of authorization creates the environment for force among the four juveniles who live among the society. Alex and his friends find exhilaration in crushing the constabulary officers senseless. Alex who is the leader of the group of four makes all the determinations for T he group. He gives the orders and shows leading. When he decides to turn out his leading by crushing two of his â€Å"cronies† the group decides to subvert his reign by puting him up at one of their chosen offense scenes. Upon Alex’s issue from the house, his â€Å"cronies† hit him about unconsciously. They no longer wanted to be in his control. He can non get away the scene due to the hurt sustained. Alex is arrested and goes through the whole tribunal procedure. He is found guilty of slaying and sentenced to forty old ages in gaol. He so grows onto the prison system, going a friend of the priests, officers, and guards. He reads the bible and stays out of problem. Alex voluntaries for an experiment, which he learns of, that promises to liberate the condemnable head and releases the condemnable back into society. The experiment is one, which through a series of Sessionss makes Alex physically sick from the offenses he has committed. The Sessionss involve the scre ening of offenses and the music of Beethoven being the lone thing he can hear. Alex upon completion of intervention can non experience any idea of force ailment become ill and experience awful hurting. Upon release from his intervention his household rejects him because they fear him. He is rejected by society because everyone who he has contact with has a blood feud against him for the offenses he committed against them. The one time # 8220 ; buddies # 8221 ; have now become constabulary officers and decide they have the authorization power over Alex now and crush his senseless.

Memories of home free essay sample

Driving up to the house, my house, the tires screech to stop as the carts tires also most to the rhythmic symmetry that I have come accustomed to my whole life. As the car comes to a full and complete stop everyone clicks off their seat belts and the big van door slides open and everyone moves like a well-oiled machine to exit the car. Someone locked thee front door so one of the kids runs through the side of the house to open the door.Like little white mice all the children move and to their separate ways throughout the house to occupy their short attention span and in no time at all everyone is either watching television or on a computer or screaming and yelling at each other. The time with my family is so special but I appreciate when they are gone from the house so I can have it to myself. We will write a custom essay sample on Memories of home or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I love making miniature campfires in the backyard which is the largest in the neighborhood. The wind blows throughout the trees and the smoke gently sifts vertically up toward the canopy.These are some of my favorite times I remember Just sitting on my bed, Innocent and wondering about nothing I would hear the rain fall from the sky and the cars moving through the rain where the ires would sift the water to either side of them. What an awesome feeling the rain can make. It is not a bad feeling. Its not a depressing feeling. It is a feeling of youth. And not caring about anything other than where the rain is coming from. Just sitting on my cold bed I have a weird feeling of warmth.As I have the comfort of the fireplace downstairs warming the house In such a natural way. As If It does not matter how wet you get or how low one can go the fire In Its secure position makes me feel secure. And when I get wet from the water from the sky, the fire will dry away he cold In my bones. The sound of rain Is one that Is hard to explain. Its Like the soft clapping of hands in a certain rhythm come together and feel so natural. I miss the sound of rain, and simply rain Itself, It feels Like I have not seen or been In rain for years.I honestly cannot remember the last time I was In It. The rain at my grandparent house In the country was truly amazing, It Is some of my favorite times. I love the sound of the rain of the tin roof that then forces the flow of the water down the hill. I love most Is the smell of the Inside of that place. There Is a feeling you get when you are nice and warm Insole the house and for a moment you walk outside onto the porch and you are not getting wet. You can almost feel the water plashing upon you and you love It.Again the fire Inside Is the stropping, without the fire there Is nothing to be admired. If you get wet you will stay wet unless you change you clothes, what an amazing feeling to have such a fire to huddle around as a family and talk and watch a moving then go to sleep as the rain continues to pour. To be In that place. Pure serenity. Total abandonment. Memories of home By thruways times I remember Just sitting on my bed, innocent and wondering about nothing I fireplace downstairs warming the house in such a natural way. As if it does not matter how wet you get or how low one can go the fire in its secure position makes the cold in my bones. The sound of rain is one that is hard to explain. Its like the soft clapping of hands in a certain rhythm come together and feel so natural. I miss the sound of rain, and simply rain itself, it feels like I have not seen or been in rain for years. I honestly cannot remember the last time I was in it. The rain at my grandparent house in the country was truly amazing, it is some of my favorite times. He hill. I love most is the smell of the inside of that place. There is a feeling you get when you are nice and warm inside the house and for a moment you walk outside upon you and you love it. Again the fire inside is the stropping, without the fire there is nothing to be admired. If you get wet you will stay wet unless you change you talk and watch a moving then go to sleep as the rain continues to pour.

Elies life essays

Elie's life essays In World War II and the diseased mind of Hitler were the factors the led to the Genocide. People who were not the superior race in Hitlers opinion didnt deserve to live. Jews were the targets of the extermination. To establish his plan Hitler created Concentration Camps, where people were forced to work. Those that were considered useless became fuel for the gas chambers and crematory. Hitlers long-term goal was to wipe out all the Jews. In the book, Night, by Elie Wiesel, the author retells the unforgettable distress and suffering that he goes through while he is in the concentration camps. In this novel, Elie helps us realize and visualize the brutality and madness of the camps and SS officers. His struggle for survival and the horror that he is exposed to changes his life forever. Elies experiences at the camp have a dramatic impact on his faith, his relationship with his father and his innocence. Elie says something very strong Never shall I forget those flames which consumed my faith forever. Never I shall forget the nocturnal silence which deprived me, for all eternity, of the desire to live. Never shall I forget those moments which murdered my God and my soul and turned my dreams to dust. Never shall I forget those things, even when I am condemned to live as long as God Himself. Never.(pg.32) By reading this quote you can hear Elie Wiesel anguish and what an impact concentration camps had on his faith. Before he was exposed to other mans madness and brutality he had faith in God and lived for him. He respected God by attending synagogue, study of Talmud and determination to comprehend the cabala. His own suffering and that of other people made him question is there God, in who he believed in for so many years. He wonders why has God abandoned His people, and why is he letting so many innocent people suffer. What have they done to deserve such punishment? Despite his quest ions he does ...

National Health Care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

National Health Care - Essay Example However it lags behind when it comes to the quality of the service it renders for the welfare of its citizens. In a report published by World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000. the United States was ranked 37th in the world in health care (Neergaard, 2000). This only shows that America's opulence and superpower status does not mean that it has the healthiest populace. How come that despite the huge budget of Americans, compared to the French and the Japanese, in health care they are still left behind in terms of medical care What are the yardsticks by which we measure the effectiveness of the health care system of a nation According to the same WHO report that mentioned the poor heath care performance of the United States, the criteria that wherein they base their criteria on the three primary goals that a superb health system should do. The first criteria is the status of health of the people, the second refers to the responsiveness of the health care system to the medical needs to the citizenry, and the last refers to the fairness in financing the costs that the public incurs. There are many different indicators that present the overall health status and well being of a country's population. Among the most important of them are infant mortality rates and "disability-adjusted life expectancy ('the number of healthy years that can be expected on average in a given population.'). In 1998, the infant mortality of the United States was 7.2 per 1000 live births. This figure makes US 26th among the industrialized nations. Though, in the same report, the US ranked first in its responsiveness to client/patient health expectations, it does not provide an accurate picture of the real events that take place in the US soil. Though it is true that US health care provides the best service, another unfortunate revelation is the unfortunate fact that US has the most expensive health care system in the world. In 1998, the US spent $4,178 per person on health, more than twice the amount of the median of developed and industrialized countries, which was pegged at $1,783 per person. On top of this is the unequal access of Americans to health care. Millions of Americans do not have insurance or have limited access to finance health care. The United States is one of the two industrialized countries (the other is South Africa) that do not provide health care for all its citizens (World Health Organization, as cited by The University of Maine, pp.2-5). This leaves millions of Americans incapable of enjoying the quality of medical care service that is touted as the best in the world. All the above data were published in a WHO report published in 2000. What is alarming is after seven years this issue has not been resolved. In 2005, more than 46 million US residents are still uninsured and desperately need adequate health care. By increasingly shifting health care costs to employees, employers pass their responsibility of providing health coverage to US workers, leaving them struggling to pay higher premiums, deductibles, and co-payments. Because of this, most of them opted to forgo health insurance, risking their lives to be subjected to health hazards without appropriate and timely financial relief (American Federation of Labor - Congress of Industrial Organizations). Another glaring issue that haunts US health care is the existence of corporate

Govt paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Govt paper - Essay Example President, the use and custodianship of the Great Seal, and the execution of the White House’s protocol functions. As may be deduced from the stated, therefore, the office of the Secretary of State is an extremely influential one, with its associate powers reaching far beyond those assigned to the Vice-President. It is precisely because of this that, even though the Secretary of State is fourth in line to the succession of the presidency, this particular office has been traditionally viewed as a stepping stone to the Presidency. Indeed, several secretaries of state, including Thomas Jefferson, were later elected to the Presidency (DeConde, 1962). Given the importance of the defined office, it is useful to research the occupation of those who filled this position and comparatively analyze the historical retention rate of Secretaries of State between Democratic and Republican Administrations. Focusing on the time period from 1897 to the present, history shows that there were thirty-two U.S. Secretaries of State. Many had had a career in politics prior to their appointment and, several had been appointed to various offices in previous administrations. Only three of the thirty-two had had an army career which, in light of this office’s primarily being a diplomatic one, is understandable. Similarly, only four were university professors/academics while a total of six had been career diplomats prior to their appointment. As regards the majority, records show that seventeen were lawyers (â€Å"Federal Government,† 2006) A more critical analysis of the facts outlined in the above leads to an interesting conclusion. While both Democratic and Republican Administrations display a comparable tendency to select their secretaries of state from amongst those who have a legal background, the Republicans have a much more pronounced preference for university professors, having appointed three of the four which served, than

Groundwater Use in Kathmandu Valley

Groundwater Use in Kathmandu Valley Chapter IV A. Groundwater Use inKathmandu Valley Abstract: The Kathmandu Valley, bowl shaped of 651 Km2 basin areas, has gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces together with the flood plains. The valley has warm temperate-semitropical climate and intended circular shaped drainage basin with only one outlet. The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age, making three groundwater zones. Only one water supply operator, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), is serving water supply in 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs out of 99 VDCs using 35 surface sources, 57 deep tube wells, 20 WTPs, 43 service reservoirs and operating about 1300 major valves. The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% in dry season and 11% in wet season with yearly average of 19% in 2011, and found decreasing to 7%, 4%, and 3% in 2016, 2019 and 2025 respectively. Water supply is found to be improved with increasing consumption rate from 41 lpcd in 2011 to 126 lpcd in 2025.If sup ply system is managed with project demand of 135 lpcd, the average supply duration will increase from 7 hr a day in 2011 to 23 hour a day in 2025. Foremost reasons of supplying much less compare to calculated are possibly due to inaccurate forecasting of served populations, absence of effective MIS on water infrastructure systems, and inaccurate estimation of unaccounted for water from system. Outside valley urban centers development, optimum land use planning for potential recharge, introducing micro to macro level rainwater harvesting programs and riverhead forest protection are important alternative options to minimize the gap between demand and supply of the valley. 1. BACKGROUND The Kathmandu Valley is consisting of Kathmandu metropolitan city, capital of Nepal. Kathmandu, an ancient city with a varied history, consists of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts with five municipalities and 99 Village Development Committees. The significance of its historical development is the rise of conurbation in the valley, the design of Pagoda style architecture and high rising temples with stepped plinth basement. After liberation in 1952, the new phase of development began with remarkable change in social status, migration of people to the valley. The general trends of the urbanization remained slow till the mid sixties. Only in seventies, infrastructures like road networks, water supply systems started to develop rapidly in the city. As a result, the valley is growing rapidly and haphazardly. This is the right time to look seriously at the growing urban problems and available water resource in the valley. It is necessary to systematize the settlement, implement the town planning more scientifically and carry out the land use in proper manner so that available water resource potential could be maintained sustainably. There are various development plans for the valley, namely construction of outer ring road, fast track road, railways, urban settlement development and construction of link roads on the bank of the rivers. The shortages of surface and groundwater availability and flood damage are identified problems in the valley. The valley basin is an ecologically important basin. 2. INTRODUCTION:KATHMANDUVALLEY 2.1 Topography The Kathmandu Valley is an intramontane basin, situated in the Lesser Himalayan zone. The lofty Higher Himalayan Range is just about 65 km aerial distance north of the Kathmandu. The valley is unique in its shape and is surrounded by the spurs of Lesser Himalayas. The valley basin is 30 km long in the east-west and about 25 km long in north-south direction. Phulchoki Hill which is 2762m above the mean sea level (msl) in the southeast is the highest elevation point in the area. Shivpuri Hill is about 2700m above msl in the north, Nagarkot is 2166m above msl in the east and Chandragiri is about 2561m above the msl in the west. The lowest elevation point located by the side of Bagmati River is 1214 m above msl. About 55 % of the area is occupied by the valley floor, 35% of foothill and the remaining 10% are mountainous areas. In the valley, the forest (mountainous) area is about 30% of the total area having slope range from 20 to 30%, and remaining area (70%) is having average slope of 0 to 4% as shown in Fig.1. Kathmandu Valley is believed to be a Paleolake. At places outcrops of Tistung Formation are exposed in the valley. There are few other buried hills and river channel in the valley underlying the thick cover of the valley fill sediments. Kathmandu Valley is situated between latitudes 27 °32 N and 27 °49N and between longitudes 85 ° 11 E and 85 ° 32 E. The configuration of the valley is more or less circular with watershed area of 651 km2.   The topographic features of the study area are gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces, and talus cone deposition, together with the flood plains. 2.2 Meteorology The climate of the area is warming temperate-semitropical, largely affected by monsoon behavior. The maximum temperature is observed about 36 ° C in summer (May) and the minimum temperature is about -3 °C in winter (January). The major forms of precipitation are rain, occasional hail and fog.   Considering the precipitation received record the maximum annual precipitation within the valley was recorded as 3293 mm in 1975 and minimum was 917 mm in 1982. The summer rainfall occurs mainly in the months of June to September and winter rainfall is also common but not heavy. Kathmandu Valley receives an annual average rainfall of about 1600 mm, which is also the average annual rainfall for the whole Nepal. The mean relative humidity is 75% and the mean wind velocity rises till the month of May up to average of 0.55 m/s and decreases after monsoon until December. The predominant wind directions are west and northwest. Generally the days are rather calm before noon and the wind rises afternoon. The monthly air pressure is almost constant throughout the year, which is about 860 mb. The sunshine duration is in the range between 7 hours and 9.5 hours per day except during the months of monsoon.   The average annual evapotranspiration is 829 mm over the basin. 2.3 Drainage The valley is situated at the upstream reach of the Bagmati River. The Bagmati River is the main drainage, which drains all the water collected in the valley basin to the south and dissects the mountains of Mahabharat range at the southwest of the valley. It originates from Bagdwar in the Shivpuri Hill in the north and flows from northeast to southwest direction in the northern half part of the valley. The watershed area has an intend shape of circular with the outlet of the basin at Chovar gorge, which is the only outlet of the basin. The fluvio-lacustrine deposit filled in the valley bottom controls the drainage system. The major tributaries for Bagmati river are nine in total namely Mai khola, Nakhu khola, Balkhu khola, Vishnumati khola, Dhobi khola, Manohara khola, Kodku khola, Godavari khola and Hanumante khola. Hanumante khola flows towards the west and Balkhu khola towards the east. Mai khola and Dhobi khola flow towards the south. They meet Bagmati River in the central part o f the valley. The Vishnumati, the Bagmati and the Manohara khola, which rise from northern and northeastern of the watershed, join in a place called Teku Dovan in Kathmandu City. Godavari khola, the Kodku khola and the Nakhu khola rise in the southern part of watershed and flow from the south to north to join with the Bagmati River. 2.4 Hydrogeology Hydrogeological condition of the valley is important things to know the groundwater potential and its yield estimation. The valley is located in the Lesser Himalayan region in central Nepal. Bedrocks are exposed mainly in the hill slopes around and only at few places in the valley.   The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age. These sediments were derived from the surrounding hills. The thickness of the valley fill sediments varies according to the undulated pattern of the basement from 78 m in Bansbari upto 549 m in Bhrikuti Mandap as confirmed by deep bore holes (Kaphle and Joshi, 1998). Metasedimentary as well as metamorphic rocks represent the basement/bedrock of the valley. Shrestha(2001) assigned The Hydrological Soil Group (HSG) for each type of geological formation according to its infiltration potential as per SCS (1975). HSG A was assigned for the soil of high infiltration rate, B for medium, C for slow and D for very slow rate. The HSG of the valley is shown in Fig.2. There are two types of sediment material namely unconsolidated and slightly consolidated sediment materials. The unconsolidated materials are found mostly in the northern part of the valley and bank of major rivers whereas slightly consolidated materials are found in other portions. In the valley, silty clay lake deposit ranges in thickness from 180 to 220 meters or more from surface and are predominate in the center and south of the valley. On the other hand no thick silty clay lake deposit exists in the northern valley except deep portion of Dhobi khola well field. Un-confined to semi-confined sand and gravel formation predominate in the north and northeast of valley. These formation ranges in thickness from 30 to 80 m with high permeability. On the other hand, the confined water bearing formation is underlined the above mentioned very thick silty clay in the center and south valley. However this deep aquifer has low permeability and high electrical conductance. The ground water we lls in the north side have penetrated high permeable water bearing formation.   However, the static water level in well field as observed by Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) has been showing a decline trend since the groundwater development has started. Almost all the private wells are located in the center and south of the valley, drilled into the confined low permeable aquifer underlined the very thick silty clay formation. In the center of the valley, below Quaternary sedimentary formation, pre-Palaeozoic hard fresh rocks are confirmed by gas wells at 450 m below ground surface. 3. GROUNDWATER ZONE AND RECHARGE Recharge into groundwater is a complicated phenomenon especially when considering recharge in a deep aquifer. It depends on many factors such as soil, vegetation, geography, and the hydrological conditions. In general, most of rechargeable areas are confined in high flat plains and alluvial low plains in the valley, because the exploitation of groundwater seems to be difficult in the surrounding high mountains. The mountain ranges surrounding the valley have no possibility for groundwater recharge because of the high relief topographical conditions. Due to steep slope, the rainfall will convert quickly to runoff than infiltrate through the ground and joins the nearest tributaries. Most of the permeated rainfall moves laterally and reappears in to the river channel as base flow or lost as evapotranspiration. The remaining part moves vertically and recharges the groundwater basin. So the rechargeable areas are found on the margins of northern and southern part of the groundwater basin boundary. Groundwater basin boundary has area of 327 km2 (Shrestha, 1990). The total rechargeable area in the valley was found 86 km2 which is 26% of the groundwater basin area. The amount of long term average annual groundwater recharge to the Kathmandu Valley basin was estimated as presented in Table 1. Table 1. Recharge Amount in equivalent depth over the Kathmandu Groundwater Basin (Shrestha, 1990) In 1972, the incoming tritium content at Kathmandu valley was estimated by the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), Harwell, 60 TU (Tritium unit) during summer and 30 TU in winter. The Tritium dating result for the groundwater indicated the recharge water was of pre-1954 (Binnie Partners and Associates, 1973). Based on hydrogeological structure the valley can be divided into three groundwater zone, namely Northern, central and southern zone. The northern zone includes 5 well fields ( Bansbari, Dhobikhola, Manohara, Bhaktapur and Gokarna well field)   as principal water sources and of 157 km2 area with estimated recharge area of 59 km2 ( Shrestha, 1990). The northern zone is largest recharge area of the valley. There are unconsolidated high permeable materials deposits in upper part consisting of micaceous quartz, sand and gravel. It can yield large quantity of water. Isotope analysis study made by Jenkins et al, 1987, confirmed that there is more rapid and vigorous recharge in Sundarijal area (Gokarna well field) than elsewhere. This zone is an interbedded aquifer or a series of sub aquifers and the complexity of its structure. It has average transmissivity in range of 83 to 1963 m3/d/m and low electrical conductivity in the range of 100 to 200 ms/cm. The central zone includes most of core urban area with almost all private wells. This zone includes Mhadevkhola well field. The upper part of deposit is composed of impermeable very thick stiff black clay with lignite. Total groundwater basin under central zone is 114.5 km2 and the rechargeable area under this zone is 6 km2. It has average transmissivity in the range of 32-960 m3/d/m and very electrical conductivity of an average of 1000 ms/cm. The existence of soluble methane gas gives an indication of sustended aquifer conditions. The southern zone is characterized by about 200m thick clay formation and low permeable basal gravel. This zone is not well developed and only recognized along the Bagmati River between Chovar and Pharping. Total groundwater basin under this zone is 55.5 km2 and the rechargeable area is 21 km2. This zone includes Pharping Well field. 4. WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT STATUS IN KATHMANDU VALLEY 4.1 Institutional Set up and Service Area The water supply services of Kathmandu Valley have remained poor despite various attempts through many projects during last three decades. It was realized that the poor state of water services in Kathmandu valley was a compounded result of deficiencies in water resources, weaknesses in system capacity, inadequacies in management efficiency and increasing political interferences after 1990 political change. As per agreement made with ADB for Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP), the Government of Nepal restructured the existing only one State owned regulator   and operator , Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) and establishing three separate entities, each for the role of asset ownership and policy setting (Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB), operation and management of services (Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) and economic regulation of the services (Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission (WSTFC).  Ã‚   KVWSMB issued an operating license to KUK L for 30 years on 12 February 2008 and also signed asset lease agreement for 30 years. Under the Asset Lease Agreement, KUKL has exclusive use of leased assets for the purpose of providing water services over 30 years and is responsible for maintaining the leased assets in good working condition, preparing capital investment and asset management programs to meet the service standards specified in the license and implementing such investment plan as approved by KVWSMB. As provider of the license, KVWSMB is also responsible for monitoring whether KUKL complies with the provisions of the operating license and asset lease agreement. The service area of KUKL includes 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs as shown in Fig. 3.   Water supply management for remaining 51 VDCs are under Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, Government of Nepal. 4.2 Population Projections The Kathmandu Valley is the most densely populated region in Nepal. Its population has also been increasing rapidly. This population is largely in Kathmandu, which is the centre of administration, industrial, commercial, social and economic activities. During the last three decades, the growth in population has been significantly driven by in-migration. The in-migration is largely due to better employment and business opportunities, better educational and medical facilities, but also insurgency and security concerns of recent years. (Source: KUKL 2011 Third Anniversary Report, 2066/67) The rapid unplanned urbanization of the Kathmandu Valley has brought negative impact to its overall development. Water became scarce as demand exceeded supply. Lack of operational wastewater system facilities converted the holy Bagmati River into a highly polluted river. Congested and crowded roads brought hardship to travelers and road junctions became garbage dumping sites. Despite these negative impacts, the urbanization of the valley has still continued at a similar rate to the past 10 years. According to urban planners, from urban basic service management and disaster relief management aspects, the Kathmandu Valley only has a carrying capacity of 5 million populations. In 1999, the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) estimated that the population in 1998 was 1.5 million, assuming an urban growth rate of 6.3% and 2.32% for the rural sector. This is consistent with the 2001 Census of 1.67 million. Using separate growth rates for the urban and rural population, the population of the valley was estimated to reach 3.5 million by 2016 under a do-nothing scenario according to MOPE (1999), as shown in Table 2. Table 3 shows the projected population in the Kathmandu Valley and KUKL service area upto 2025. Population in Kathmandu Valley will be saturated with maximum capacity of 5 millions in 2025. Thus alternate planning and development of urban settlements are needed after 2025. Figure 4 shows comparison of the KUKL service area permanent population projections adopted with those provided by SAPI (2004) and the Bagmati Action Plan (BAP) (2009). The BAP projection is higher because the area taken is for the whole of the Kathmandu Valley and includes areas outside the KUKL service area. Table 2. Population Projection for Kathmandu Valley under Do-nothing Scenario Note: 1 Growth rate at 6% per annum, 2, Growth rate at 2.32% per annum. Urban population includes municipal population and population of 34 rapidly urbanizing VDCs, Source: MOPE, 1999 Source: Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement ( PPTA 4893- NEP)   May 2010) 5. WATER INFRASTRUCTURES (KUKL) Figure 5 shows 6 major water supply schemes, namely, Tri Bhim Dhara, Bir Dhara, Sundarijal, Bhaktapur, Chapagaun, and Pharping schemes, which include surface and groundwater sources, WTPs, and major transmission lines. Surface Water Sources: At present, there are 35 surface sources being tapped for water supply mostly situated at hills surrounding the valley as spring in the valley. There is considerable seasonal fluctuation in water discharge. Most water sources have a reduced flow in the dry season by 30 to 40% with some by as much as 70%. Almost all the sources have some potential additional yield in the wet season. The total wet season supply of 106 MLD reduces in the dry season to 75 MLD. Groundwater Sources: Deep tube wells are the main means of extracting groundwater for use in the water supply system. Out of 78 existing deep tube-wells only 57 are currently in operation mainly from 7 well fields, namely, Manohara, Gokarna, Dhobikhola, Bansbari, Mahadevkhola, Bhaktapur, and Pharping well fields. Most of the tube wells electro-mechanical parts are in a poor condition with most flow meters missing or broken. Tube wells used to be operated only in the dry season in order to supplement reducing surface water sources, but, due to demand exceeding supply, they are now also used in the wet season. Total dry season (4 months: February to May) rated production 33 MLD with a reduced wet season (remaining 8 months) production of 13.7 MLD. Additional subsurface flow has been extracting through 15 dug wells. Table A1 (in Appendix) presents inventory of deep tubewells currently in operating condition in KUKL. Water Treatment Plants: At present, there are 20 water treatment plants (WTPs) in the system with a total treatment capacity of about 117 MLD treating surface water and groundwater due to high iron content. Six WTPs are of capacity between 3 to 26.5 MLD. The largest is at Mahankal Chaur with a treatment capacity of 26.5 MLD and the smallest is at Kuleswor with a treatment capacity of 0.11 MLD. Most of the WTPs are in poor condition and none has operational flow meters or properly operating chlorination equipment. Service Reservoirs:   There are a total of 43 service reservoirs in the system with capacities ranging from 4,500m3 down to 50m3. Most of the reservoirs are in reasonable condition but two are leaking. The total storage capacity is 41500 m3. Pumping Stations:There are 31 water supply pumping stations in the system that are used to draw water from sump wells to treatment plants or service reservoirs, and to fill up reservoirs located on higher ground or overhead tanks. Of these only 11 are in satisfactory condition. Few have operational flow meters or pressure gauges. Major operation and maintenance problem in the pumping stations are lack of skilled technician and absence of proper monitoring mechanisms. Transmission Mains and Distribution Lines: At present, the total length of transmission mains is about 301kms,aging between 20 to 115 years, and distribution mains of about 1115 kms of aging between 2 to 115 years, with pipe diameter varying from 50mm to 800mm. The pipe materials used include Galvanized Iron (GI), Cast Iron (CI), Steel (SI), Ductile Iron (DI), High Density Polythene Pipe (HDPE) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). The majority type of pipe used is 50mm diameter GI. Operating Mechanism:   The system has about 1300 major valves of different sizes. Most of the large sizes valves are situated inside WTPs and operating daily. All valves are being operated manually. Water leakage from the valve chamber or valves contributes major portion in the total counted leakage percentage. Other than piped water supplied through the valves, water tankers are also serving water especially in water scared area by injecting into the distribution line usually smaller size (50 mm) and filling in publicly established polytanks. Water tankers are also being used for emergency condition such as pipeline breakage, fire fighting and sudden malfunctioned systems. Water tankers are also used as private trip charging approved rate. There are many problems in the distribution system. These problems include: ad hoc laying of pipes and valves, involvement of users group and their intervention in the operation of valves, multiple service pipeline connections, direct pumping fr om distribution lines, illegal connections, high percentage of leakage and wastage, and direct distribution from transmission mains. The majority of consumer lines are leaking at the connection to the distribution mains and few customers have properly operating consumer meters. 6. WATER DEMAND AND GROUNDWATER USE FORSUPPLY 6.1Current Water Demand and Supply Water demand is usually derived from the population within service area, population growth, domestic water consumption level assumptions, and a provision for non-domestic water consumption. The permanent population is forecast to rise from present population of 2.1 million in 2010, 2.7 million in 2015 and 3.2 million in 2020 and 3.9 million in 2025. Out of the total population forecast 77%, 87% and 96% of the population will be served, as a result of the MWSP and future investments, in 2015, 2020 and 2025 respectively. Predicting the exact number of temporary population in the valley is a challenging task, as there is no reliable data. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA 2010, undertook a sample survey to count temporary population. The sample surveys were focused on three categories of the temporary population viz street vendors; students, service holders and labours seeking job in the valley; and house servants/keepers. The survey indicated that tempor ary population amounted to approximately 30% of the permanent population. The proportion of temporary population varies between municipal and VDC wards. It has to be taken into account in population projections and service demands. However, demand is also a function of price, household income availability and accessibility of water supply, but accurate estimates of the impact of these factors require extensive analysis of historical data. The present permanent population of the valley water supply service area is estimated at over 2.1 million. Adding 30% the total population to be considered for gross demand forecasting will be 2.73 million. It is reasonable to assume 40 % of total water consumption rate for temporary or floating population. Considering household sanitation system in the service area, it is reasonable to take per capita demand in the range of 85 to 95 lpcd. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA, 2010, has considered 93 lpcd. For the demand taking 135 lpcd which is consumption rate considered in MWSP for total population including temporary population, the total water demand at service level or point of use is found to be 315 MLD, which is similar to KUKL estimated de mand of 320 MLD (KUKL, 2011). Estimated unaccounted for water (UfW) considered for the system is 35-40% (KUKL 2011). Considering UfW as 40 %, net water supply would be decreased by 40%. Figure 6 shows maximum production of 149 MLD on the month of September and minimum of 89 MLD on March. It gives yearly average production of 119 MLD and dry season average production of 94 MLD whereas wet season average is 131 MLD. Considering 20 % real losses as process loss on water flow incorporating transmission loss, treatment plant operation loss, quantity of water supplied and deficiencies is estimated as shown in Fig.7 and Table 4. 20 % loss is assumed to be occurred in distribution system, i.e. from service reservoir to a tap or point of use. Table 4. Current Average Monthly Demand, Supply and Deficiencies ( ) Groundwater contribution in MLD Figure 7 shows dry season average supply as 76 MLD and 105 MLD for wet season. Yearly average supply is 96 MLD. Thus the water supply in the Kathmandu Valley via KUKL piped network at present is an average 35 litres per capita per day, whereas supply in KUKL service area is average of 46 lpcd. 6.2Groundwater Depleting Trends The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% during dry season (4 months from Feb to May) and 11% during wet season (remaining 8 months). The pumping rate of the private wells in the valley is smaller compared to KUKLs   tubewell abstraction. The trend of groundwater extraction volume from private wells and gas wells remains almost constant during the last several years. But the production from KUKL wells is increasing greatly. Deeper groundwater is being over-extracted and extraction is unsustainable. It is estimated that there are over 10,000 hand dug well Groundwater Use in Kathmandu Valley Groundwater Use in Kathmandu Valley Chapter IV A. Groundwater Use inKathmandu Valley Abstract: The Kathmandu Valley, bowl shaped of 651 Km2 basin areas, has gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces together with the flood plains. The valley has warm temperate-semitropical climate and intended circular shaped drainage basin with only one outlet. The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age, making three groundwater zones. Only one water supply operator, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), is serving water supply in 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs out of 99 VDCs using 35 surface sources, 57 deep tube wells, 20 WTPs, 43 service reservoirs and operating about 1300 major valves. The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% in dry season and 11% in wet season with yearly average of 19% in 2011, and found decreasing to 7%, 4%, and 3% in 2016, 2019 and 2025 respectively. Water supply is found to be improved with increasing consumption rate from 41 lpcd in 2011 to 126 lpcd in 2025.If sup ply system is managed with project demand of 135 lpcd, the average supply duration will increase from 7 hr a day in 2011 to 23 hour a day in 2025. Foremost reasons of supplying much less compare to calculated are possibly due to inaccurate forecasting of served populations, absence of effective MIS on water infrastructure systems, and inaccurate estimation of unaccounted for water from system. Outside valley urban centers development, optimum land use planning for potential recharge, introducing micro to macro level rainwater harvesting programs and riverhead forest protection are important alternative options to minimize the gap between demand and supply of the valley. 1. BACKGROUND The Kathmandu Valley is consisting of Kathmandu metropolitan city, capital of Nepal. Kathmandu, an ancient city with a varied history, consists of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts with five municipalities and 99 Village Development Committees. The significance of its historical development is the rise of conurbation in the valley, the design of Pagoda style architecture and high rising temples with stepped plinth basement. After liberation in 1952, the new phase of development began with remarkable change in social status, migration of people to the valley. The general trends of the urbanization remained slow till the mid sixties. Only in seventies, infrastructures like road networks, water supply systems started to develop rapidly in the city. As a result, the valley is growing rapidly and haphazardly. This is the right time to look seriously at the growing urban problems and available water resource in the valley. It is necessary to systematize the settlement, implement the town planning more scientifically and carry out the land use in proper manner so that available water resource potential could be maintained sustainably. There are various development plans for the valley, namely construction of outer ring road, fast track road, railways, urban settlement development and construction of link roads on the bank of the rivers. The shortages of surface and groundwater availability and flood damage are identified problems in the valley. The valley basin is an ecologically important basin. 2. INTRODUCTION:KATHMANDUVALLEY 2.1 Topography The Kathmandu Valley is an intramontane basin, situated in the Lesser Himalayan zone. The lofty Higher Himalayan Range is just about 65 km aerial distance north of the Kathmandu. The valley is unique in its shape and is surrounded by the spurs of Lesser Himalayas. The valley basin is 30 km long in the east-west and about 25 km long in north-south direction. Phulchoki Hill which is 2762m above the mean sea level (msl) in the southeast is the highest elevation point in the area. Shivpuri Hill is about 2700m above msl in the north, Nagarkot is 2166m above msl in the east and Chandragiri is about 2561m above the msl in the west. The lowest elevation point located by the side of Bagmati River is 1214 m above msl. About 55 % of the area is occupied by the valley floor, 35% of foothill and the remaining 10% are mountainous areas. In the valley, the forest (mountainous) area is about 30% of the total area having slope range from 20 to 30%, and remaining area (70%) is having average slope of 0 to 4% as shown in Fig.1. Kathmandu Valley is believed to be a Paleolake. At places outcrops of Tistung Formation are exposed in the valley. There are few other buried hills and river channel in the valley underlying the thick cover of the valley fill sediments. Kathmandu Valley is situated between latitudes 27 °32 N and 27 °49N and between longitudes 85 ° 11 E and 85 ° 32 E. The configuration of the valley is more or less circular with watershed area of 651 km2.   The topographic features of the study area are gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces, and talus cone deposition, together with the flood plains. 2.2 Meteorology The climate of the area is warming temperate-semitropical, largely affected by monsoon behavior. The maximum temperature is observed about 36 ° C in summer (May) and the minimum temperature is about -3 °C in winter (January). The major forms of precipitation are rain, occasional hail and fog.   Considering the precipitation received record the maximum annual precipitation within the valley was recorded as 3293 mm in 1975 and minimum was 917 mm in 1982. The summer rainfall occurs mainly in the months of June to September and winter rainfall is also common but not heavy. Kathmandu Valley receives an annual average rainfall of about 1600 mm, which is also the average annual rainfall for the whole Nepal. The mean relative humidity is 75% and the mean wind velocity rises till the month of May up to average of 0.55 m/s and decreases after monsoon until December. The predominant wind directions are west and northwest. Generally the days are rather calm before noon and the wind rises afternoon. The monthly air pressure is almost constant throughout the year, which is about 860 mb. The sunshine duration is in the range between 7 hours and 9.5 hours per day except during the months of monsoon.   The average annual evapotranspiration is 829 mm over the basin. 2.3 Drainage The valley is situated at the upstream reach of the Bagmati River. The Bagmati River is the main drainage, which drains all the water collected in the valley basin to the south and dissects the mountains of Mahabharat range at the southwest of the valley. It originates from Bagdwar in the Shivpuri Hill in the north and flows from northeast to southwest direction in the northern half part of the valley. The watershed area has an intend shape of circular with the outlet of the basin at Chovar gorge, which is the only outlet of the basin. The fluvio-lacustrine deposit filled in the valley bottom controls the drainage system. The major tributaries for Bagmati river are nine in total namely Mai khola, Nakhu khola, Balkhu khola, Vishnumati khola, Dhobi khola, Manohara khola, Kodku khola, Godavari khola and Hanumante khola. Hanumante khola flows towards the west and Balkhu khola towards the east. Mai khola and Dhobi khola flow towards the south. They meet Bagmati River in the central part o f the valley. The Vishnumati, the Bagmati and the Manohara khola, which rise from northern and northeastern of the watershed, join in a place called Teku Dovan in Kathmandu City. Godavari khola, the Kodku khola and the Nakhu khola rise in the southern part of watershed and flow from the south to north to join with the Bagmati River. 2.4 Hydrogeology Hydrogeological condition of the valley is important things to know the groundwater potential and its yield estimation. The valley is located in the Lesser Himalayan region in central Nepal. Bedrocks are exposed mainly in the hill slopes around and only at few places in the valley.   The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age. These sediments were derived from the surrounding hills. The thickness of the valley fill sediments varies according to the undulated pattern of the basement from 78 m in Bansbari upto 549 m in Bhrikuti Mandap as confirmed by deep bore holes (Kaphle and Joshi, 1998). Metasedimentary as well as metamorphic rocks represent the basement/bedrock of the valley. Shrestha(2001) assigned The Hydrological Soil Group (HSG) for each type of geological formation according to its infiltration potential as per SCS (1975). HSG A was assigned for the soil of high infiltration rate, B for medium, C for slow and D for very slow rate. The HSG of the valley is shown in Fig.2. There are two types of sediment material namely unconsolidated and slightly consolidated sediment materials. The unconsolidated materials are found mostly in the northern part of the valley and bank of major rivers whereas slightly consolidated materials are found in other portions. In the valley, silty clay lake deposit ranges in thickness from 180 to 220 meters or more from surface and are predominate in the center and south of the valley. On the other hand no thick silty clay lake deposit exists in the northern valley except deep portion of Dhobi khola well field. Un-confined to semi-confined sand and gravel formation predominate in the north and northeast of valley. These formation ranges in thickness from 30 to 80 m with high permeability. On the other hand, the confined water bearing formation is underlined the above mentioned very thick silty clay in the center and south valley. However this deep aquifer has low permeability and high electrical conductance. The ground water we lls in the north side have penetrated high permeable water bearing formation.   However, the static water level in well field as observed by Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) has been showing a decline trend since the groundwater development has started. Almost all the private wells are located in the center and south of the valley, drilled into the confined low permeable aquifer underlined the very thick silty clay formation. In the center of the valley, below Quaternary sedimentary formation, pre-Palaeozoic hard fresh rocks are confirmed by gas wells at 450 m below ground surface. 3. GROUNDWATER ZONE AND RECHARGE Recharge into groundwater is a complicated phenomenon especially when considering recharge in a deep aquifer. It depends on many factors such as soil, vegetation, geography, and the hydrological conditions. In general, most of rechargeable areas are confined in high flat plains and alluvial low plains in the valley, because the exploitation of groundwater seems to be difficult in the surrounding high mountains. The mountain ranges surrounding the valley have no possibility for groundwater recharge because of the high relief topographical conditions. Due to steep slope, the rainfall will convert quickly to runoff than infiltrate through the ground and joins the nearest tributaries. Most of the permeated rainfall moves laterally and reappears in to the river channel as base flow or lost as evapotranspiration. The remaining part moves vertically and recharges the groundwater basin. So the rechargeable areas are found on the margins of northern and southern part of the groundwater basin boundary. Groundwater basin boundary has area of 327 km2 (Shrestha, 1990). The total rechargeable area in the valley was found 86 km2 which is 26% of the groundwater basin area. The amount of long term average annual groundwater recharge to the Kathmandu Valley basin was estimated as presented in Table 1. Table 1. Recharge Amount in equivalent depth over the Kathmandu Groundwater Basin (Shrestha, 1990) In 1972, the incoming tritium content at Kathmandu valley was estimated by the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), Harwell, 60 TU (Tritium unit) during summer and 30 TU in winter. The Tritium dating result for the groundwater indicated the recharge water was of pre-1954 (Binnie Partners and Associates, 1973). Based on hydrogeological structure the valley can be divided into three groundwater zone, namely Northern, central and southern zone. The northern zone includes 5 well fields ( Bansbari, Dhobikhola, Manohara, Bhaktapur and Gokarna well field)   as principal water sources and of 157 km2 area with estimated recharge area of 59 km2 ( Shrestha, 1990). The northern zone is largest recharge area of the valley. There are unconsolidated high permeable materials deposits in upper part consisting of micaceous quartz, sand and gravel. It can yield large quantity of water. Isotope analysis study made by Jenkins et al, 1987, confirmed that there is more rapid and vigorous recharge in Sundarijal area (Gokarna well field) than elsewhere. This zone is an interbedded aquifer or a series of sub aquifers and the complexity of its structure. It has average transmissivity in range of 83 to 1963 m3/d/m and low electrical conductivity in the range of 100 to 200 ms/cm. The central zone includes most of core urban area with almost all private wells. This zone includes Mhadevkhola well field. The upper part of deposit is composed of impermeable very thick stiff black clay with lignite. Total groundwater basin under central zone is 114.5 km2 and the rechargeable area under this zone is 6 km2. It has average transmissivity in the range of 32-960 m3/d/m and very electrical conductivity of an average of 1000 ms/cm. The existence of soluble methane gas gives an indication of sustended aquifer conditions. The southern zone is characterized by about 200m thick clay formation and low permeable basal gravel. This zone is not well developed and only recognized along the Bagmati River between Chovar and Pharping. Total groundwater basin under this zone is 55.5 km2 and the rechargeable area is 21 km2. This zone includes Pharping Well field. 4. WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT STATUS IN KATHMANDU VALLEY 4.1 Institutional Set up and Service Area The water supply services of Kathmandu Valley have remained poor despite various attempts through many projects during last three decades. It was realized that the poor state of water services in Kathmandu valley was a compounded result of deficiencies in water resources, weaknesses in system capacity, inadequacies in management efficiency and increasing political interferences after 1990 political change. As per agreement made with ADB for Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP), the Government of Nepal restructured the existing only one State owned regulator   and operator , Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) and establishing three separate entities, each for the role of asset ownership and policy setting (Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB), operation and management of services (Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) and economic regulation of the services (Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission (WSTFC).  Ã‚   KVWSMB issued an operating license to KUK L for 30 years on 12 February 2008 and also signed asset lease agreement for 30 years. Under the Asset Lease Agreement, KUKL has exclusive use of leased assets for the purpose of providing water services over 30 years and is responsible for maintaining the leased assets in good working condition, preparing capital investment and asset management programs to meet the service standards specified in the license and implementing such investment plan as approved by KVWSMB. As provider of the license, KVWSMB is also responsible for monitoring whether KUKL complies with the provisions of the operating license and asset lease agreement. The service area of KUKL includes 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs as shown in Fig. 3.   Water supply management for remaining 51 VDCs are under Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, Government of Nepal. 4.2 Population Projections The Kathmandu Valley is the most densely populated region in Nepal. Its population has also been increasing rapidly. This population is largely in Kathmandu, which is the centre of administration, industrial, commercial, social and economic activities. During the last three decades, the growth in population has been significantly driven by in-migration. The in-migration is largely due to better employment and business opportunities, better educational and medical facilities, but also insurgency and security concerns of recent years. (Source: KUKL 2011 Third Anniversary Report, 2066/67) The rapid unplanned urbanization of the Kathmandu Valley has brought negative impact to its overall development. Water became scarce as demand exceeded supply. Lack of operational wastewater system facilities converted the holy Bagmati River into a highly polluted river. Congested and crowded roads brought hardship to travelers and road junctions became garbage dumping sites. Despite these negative impacts, the urbanization of the valley has still continued at a similar rate to the past 10 years. According to urban planners, from urban basic service management and disaster relief management aspects, the Kathmandu Valley only has a carrying capacity of 5 million populations. In 1999, the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) estimated that the population in 1998 was 1.5 million, assuming an urban growth rate of 6.3% and 2.32% for the rural sector. This is consistent with the 2001 Census of 1.67 million. Using separate growth rates for the urban and rural population, the population of the valley was estimated to reach 3.5 million by 2016 under a do-nothing scenario according to MOPE (1999), as shown in Table 2. Table 3 shows the projected population in the Kathmandu Valley and KUKL service area upto 2025. Population in Kathmandu Valley will be saturated with maximum capacity of 5 millions in 2025. Thus alternate planning and development of urban settlements are needed after 2025. Figure 4 shows comparison of the KUKL service area permanent population projections adopted with those provided by SAPI (2004) and the Bagmati Action Plan (BAP) (2009). The BAP projection is higher because the area taken is for the whole of the Kathmandu Valley and includes areas outside the KUKL service area. Table 2. Population Projection for Kathmandu Valley under Do-nothing Scenario Note: 1 Growth rate at 6% per annum, 2, Growth rate at 2.32% per annum. Urban population includes municipal population and population of 34 rapidly urbanizing VDCs, Source: MOPE, 1999 Source: Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement ( PPTA 4893- NEP)   May 2010) 5. WATER INFRASTRUCTURES (KUKL) Figure 5 shows 6 major water supply schemes, namely, Tri Bhim Dhara, Bir Dhara, Sundarijal, Bhaktapur, Chapagaun, and Pharping schemes, which include surface and groundwater sources, WTPs, and major transmission lines. Surface Water Sources: At present, there are 35 surface sources being tapped for water supply mostly situated at hills surrounding the valley as spring in the valley. There is considerable seasonal fluctuation in water discharge. Most water sources have a reduced flow in the dry season by 30 to 40% with some by as much as 70%. Almost all the sources have some potential additional yield in the wet season. The total wet season supply of 106 MLD reduces in the dry season to 75 MLD. Groundwater Sources: Deep tube wells are the main means of extracting groundwater for use in the water supply system. Out of 78 existing deep tube-wells only 57 are currently in operation mainly from 7 well fields, namely, Manohara, Gokarna, Dhobikhola, Bansbari, Mahadevkhola, Bhaktapur, and Pharping well fields. Most of the tube wells electro-mechanical parts are in a poor condition with most flow meters missing or broken. Tube wells used to be operated only in the dry season in order to supplement reducing surface water sources, but, due to demand exceeding supply, they are now also used in the wet season. Total dry season (4 months: February to May) rated production 33 MLD with a reduced wet season (remaining 8 months) production of 13.7 MLD. Additional subsurface flow has been extracting through 15 dug wells. Table A1 (in Appendix) presents inventory of deep tubewells currently in operating condition in KUKL. Water Treatment Plants: At present, there are 20 water treatment plants (WTPs) in the system with a total treatment capacity of about 117 MLD treating surface water and groundwater due to high iron content. Six WTPs are of capacity between 3 to 26.5 MLD. The largest is at Mahankal Chaur with a treatment capacity of 26.5 MLD and the smallest is at Kuleswor with a treatment capacity of 0.11 MLD. Most of the WTPs are in poor condition and none has operational flow meters or properly operating chlorination equipment. Service Reservoirs:   There are a total of 43 service reservoirs in the system with capacities ranging from 4,500m3 down to 50m3. Most of the reservoirs are in reasonable condition but two are leaking. The total storage capacity is 41500 m3. Pumping Stations:There are 31 water supply pumping stations in the system that are used to draw water from sump wells to treatment plants or service reservoirs, and to fill up reservoirs located on higher ground or overhead tanks. Of these only 11 are in satisfactory condition. Few have operational flow meters or pressure gauges. Major operation and maintenance problem in the pumping stations are lack of skilled technician and absence of proper monitoring mechanisms. Transmission Mains and Distribution Lines: At present, the total length of transmission mains is about 301kms,aging between 20 to 115 years, and distribution mains of about 1115 kms of aging between 2 to 115 years, with pipe diameter varying from 50mm to 800mm. The pipe materials used include Galvanized Iron (GI), Cast Iron (CI), Steel (SI), Ductile Iron (DI), High Density Polythene Pipe (HDPE) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). The majority type of pipe used is 50mm diameter GI. Operating Mechanism:   The system has about 1300 major valves of different sizes. Most of the large sizes valves are situated inside WTPs and operating daily. All valves are being operated manually. Water leakage from the valve chamber or valves contributes major portion in the total counted leakage percentage. Other than piped water supplied through the valves, water tankers are also serving water especially in water scared area by injecting into the distribution line usually smaller size (50 mm) and filling in publicly established polytanks. Water tankers are also being used for emergency condition such as pipeline breakage, fire fighting and sudden malfunctioned systems. Water tankers are also used as private trip charging approved rate. There are many problems in the distribution system. These problems include: ad hoc laying of pipes and valves, involvement of users group and their intervention in the operation of valves, multiple service pipeline connections, direct pumping fr om distribution lines, illegal connections, high percentage of leakage and wastage, and direct distribution from transmission mains. The majority of consumer lines are leaking at the connection to the distribution mains and few customers have properly operating consumer meters. 6. WATER DEMAND AND GROUNDWATER USE FORSUPPLY 6.1Current Water Demand and Supply Water demand is usually derived from the population within service area, population growth, domestic water consumption level assumptions, and a provision for non-domestic water consumption. The permanent population is forecast to rise from present population of 2.1 million in 2010, 2.7 million in 2015 and 3.2 million in 2020 and 3.9 million in 2025. Out of the total population forecast 77%, 87% and 96% of the population will be served, as a result of the MWSP and future investments, in 2015, 2020 and 2025 respectively. Predicting the exact number of temporary population in the valley is a challenging task, as there is no reliable data. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA 2010, undertook a sample survey to count temporary population. The sample surveys were focused on three categories of the temporary population viz street vendors; students, service holders and labours seeking job in the valley; and house servants/keepers. The survey indicated that tempor ary population amounted to approximately 30% of the permanent population. The proportion of temporary population varies between municipal and VDC wards. It has to be taken into account in population projections and service demands. However, demand is also a function of price, household income availability and accessibility of water supply, but accurate estimates of the impact of these factors require extensive analysis of historical data. The present permanent population of the valley water supply service area is estimated at over 2.1 million. Adding 30% the total population to be considered for gross demand forecasting will be 2.73 million. It is reasonable to assume 40 % of total water consumption rate for temporary or floating population. Considering household sanitation system in the service area, it is reasonable to take per capita demand in the range of 85 to 95 lpcd. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA, 2010, has considered 93 lpcd. For the demand taking 135 lpcd which is consumption rate considered in MWSP for total population including temporary population, the total water demand at service level or point of use is found to be 315 MLD, which is similar to KUKL estimated de mand of 320 MLD (KUKL, 2011). Estimated unaccounted for water (UfW) considered for the system is 35-40% (KUKL 2011). Considering UfW as 40 %, net water supply would be decreased by 40%. Figure 6 shows maximum production of 149 MLD on the month of September and minimum of 89 MLD on March. It gives yearly average production of 119 MLD and dry season average production of 94 MLD whereas wet season average is 131 MLD. Considering 20 % real losses as process loss on water flow incorporating transmission loss, treatment plant operation loss, quantity of water supplied and deficiencies is estimated as shown in Fig.7 and Table 4. 20 % loss is assumed to be occurred in distribution system, i.e. from service reservoir to a tap or point of use. Table 4. Current Average Monthly Demand, Supply and Deficiencies ( ) Groundwater contribution in MLD Figure 7 shows dry season average supply as 76 MLD and 105 MLD for wet season. Yearly average supply is 96 MLD. Thus the water supply in the Kathmandu Valley via KUKL piped network at present is an average 35 litres per capita per day, whereas supply in KUKL service area is average of 46 lpcd. 6.2Groundwater Depleting Trends The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% during dry season (4 months from Feb to May) and 11% during wet season (remaining 8 months). The pumping rate of the private wells in the valley is smaller compared to KUKLs   tubewell abstraction. The trend of groundwater extraction volume from private wells and gas wells remains almost constant during the last several years. But the production from KUKL wells is increasing greatly. Deeper groundwater is being over-extracted and extraction is unsustainable. It is estimated that there are over 10,000 hand dug well